Conscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require (very often, male only) citizens to serve in their armed forces\es was known colloquially as "the draft". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although y labour demanded by some established authority; for example, Old Testament commentarartime. National Service was the term used during peace-time in the United Kingdom and Singapore. In New Zealand the term Compulsory Military Training was used. In Japan during World War II, Japrm "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the Selective Service System or the She USA the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as commissioned officers.

History
The invention of modern conscription during the French Revolution Modern conscription was invented during the French Revolution, allowing the Republic to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any French is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the ording to philosopher Michel Foucault, conscription is\ political disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Newfoundland, Australia and New Zealand (See Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurredoped nations, the in\of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.

Some countries which draft women include the People's Republic of China, Taiwan (ROC), North Korea, Peru, Malaysia, Libya, Israel, and Eritrea. In 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The United Stat\ ay also be compounded by the typically low wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as Greece. Feminists and others calling for more equal treatment of women in society have rarely extended their demands to include a call for equality for women with male-only conscriptio\rayed the writers experience of conscription in a very negative way, emphasizing the brutality and tedium of military training. Examples include Arnold Wesker's Chips with Everything and Ginger You're barmy by David Lodge . In his book, Lodge suggests that the practice of male-only conscription helped to generate sexist attitudes by making it difficult for men to regard those who were excused the rigors of military training as their equals.

Conscientious objection
Main articles: Conscientious objection, and Antimilitarism,"It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action." -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, et al, in the "Manifesto Against Conscription and the conscientious obj\nications technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons—notably, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate incame conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors. For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as "draft-dodger". U.S. draft-dodgers made their way to Canada or Mexico. Australian draft-dodgers had greater dcing conscription, chose to either plead conscientious objection or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to publicly and politically fight conscription. In Australia this was known as the Draft Resistance Movement.

Austria
Austria has mandatory military service for fit male citizens from 18 to 35 years of age. Service lasts for 8 months but will be shortened to 6 months in 2006. Conscientious objectors join the civilian service (Zivildandatory military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years of age. Currently (2004) the duration of the service depends on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor degree or higher the service is 6 months, and for citizens with no higher education it is 9 months. During the last 10 years the duration of service has rapidly dropped (from 2 years in 1994) and as Bulgaria adopts a professional army mandatory service is expected to be replaced with voluntary sehe People's Republic of China has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go into the army for two months and learn to use firearms. In practice, military service with the Pw prescribes o, the duration of military service has been halved and civil service was introduced together with the streamlining of the professional army. Should this trend continue, the mandatory service may eventually be completely replaced with voluntary service.

Cyprus
Cyprus has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of 18 and 50. Military service lasts for 25 months. After that, ex-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do 33 months unarmed serd. Ir months, and is normally served by men in the age of 18 to 27. Some special services will take longer. Danish men will typically receive a letter around the time of their 18th birthday, asking when their current education (if any) ends, and some time later, depending on when, they will receive a notice on when to attend to the draft office to be tested physically and psychologically. However some may be deemed unfit for service and not be required to show up.

Even if a person is deemed fit, or partially fit for service, he may avoid having to serve if he draws a high enough number randomly. Persons who are deemed partly fit for service will however be placed lower than those who are deemed fit for service, and therefore have a very low chance of being drafted. Men deemed fit can be called upon for service until their 50th birthday in case of national crisis, regardless ies, as long as they apply before they turn 28 years of age. By the age of 30 a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males with no brothers, or those supporting parents are exempted from the service. Males serve for a period ranging from 14 months to 48 months depending on their education; high school dropouts serve for 48 months during which they finish their high-school education. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education, and col2004 Finland has mandatory military service for men of at least six months (180 days), dependinarmed service is also possible, and lasts eleven months (330 days). Since 1995, women have been given the option of voluntary military service. During the first 56 days, women have an option to quit the service without having to provide a reason. After serving for 56 days, they fall under the same obligation to serve as men.

Non-military service of thirteen months (395 days) is available for men whose conscience prevents them from serving in the military. Men who refuse to serve at all are sent to prison for 6.5 months (197 days) or half the time of their remaining non-military service at time of refusal. In theory, male citizens from the demilitarized Åland region have to serve in customs offices or lighthouses, but since this service has not bpart of the service is done, the soldier enters the reserve. The reservists can be called to mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serves 40 days maximum, specialists 75 days and officers 100 days. For this, a salary of about 50 euro per day is paid. The service is mandatory; it is not possiblptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of 18 and 23 years. Thosce will be cut to 6 months by 2008 or even abolished completely. Although women are accepted into the Greek army, they are not obligated to join as men are. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they can receive med, except Haredim, who can choose to serve but mostly do not. Israeli Arabs are exemson terms as a result (no more than a few months). See also: Refusal to serve in the Isrviously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On the 4th of May 2005, a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. See Official Information from Lebanese Army.

Malaysia
As of 2004, Malaysia has mandatory national service of three months for a selected group of both men and womf one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as a "disponibility reservist", that is, they must not follow any activitracy Campaigns as teachers, or as Phys-Ed instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open r Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or a Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz. In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which tastimated pope there and with 80% of the nation's vehicles being produced there. Chennai is also referred as the Detroit of South Asia. It has also become a major center for outsourced jobs from the Western w in the world. The city is known for its sport venues and hosts India's only ATP tennis event, the Chennai Open.


The Kapaleeshwarar temple in Mylapore was built by the Pallava kings in the 7th centuryMain articles: History of Chennai, and as an important administrative, military, and economic centre dating back to the 1st century. It has been ruled by South Indian kingdoms, notably the Pallava, the Chola, the Pandya, and Vijaynagar empires. The town of Mylapore, now part of the metropolis, was once a major port of thes, who is believed to have preached there between the years 52 and 70. The region then passed into the hands of the Dutch, who established themselves near Pulicat just north of the city in 1612. On 22 August 1639, the British East India Company was granted land by the Nayak of Vandavasi as a base for a permanent settlement, believed to be called Madrasemen. A year later, Fort St George was buiwas renamed Chennai in August 1996 as the name Madras was perceived to be of Portuat coastal plain, as can be seen in this Landsat 7 map.
Chennai and surrounding townsCuthern region. Both rivers are heavily polluted with effluents and trash from domestic and commercial sources. The Adyar, which is much less polluted than the Cooum, is de-silted and cleaned periodically by the state government. A protected estuary of the Adyar forms the natural habitat of several species of birds and animals. The Buckingham Canal, 4 km (3 miles) inland, travels parallel to the coast, linking the two rivers. The Otteri Nullah, an east-west stream runs through north Chennai and meets the Buckingham Canal at Basin Bridge.

Several lakes of varying size are located on the western fringes of the city. Red Hills, Sholavaram and Chembarambakkam Lake supply Chennai with potable water. Groundwater sources are mostly brackish. The city's water supply has proved inadequate for its population, and an over-reliance on annual monsoon rains to replenish water reservoirs has compounded problems. There had been some attempts to pipe in water from other sources, such as the Veeranam, a water-rich place in Tamil Nadu or from the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh. Water is a precious commodity in Chennai and this has given rise to private water tankers supplying many areas. Alternative measures such as reverse osmosis and rainwatsandy areas, clayey areas and hard-rock areas. Sandy areas are found along the river banks and the coasts. Clayey regions cover most of the city. Hard rock areas are Guindy, Velachery,la early June usually about 38 °C (100 °F), though it usually exceeds 40 °C
The Chennai Metropolitan area consists of three districts namely Chennai city and the districts of Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur. The city area covers an area of 174 km² (67 mi²). The metropolitan area covers 1,177 km² (455 mi²). The city is divided on the basis of composition into four major parts: North, Central, South aily an industrial area. Central Chennai is the commercial heart of the city and the downtown area. South Chennai and West Chennai, previously predominantly residential areas are fast turnus satellite towns include Mahabalipuram to the south, Chengalpattu to the south west, Kanchipuram town, Sriperumpudur, Tiruvallur and Arakkonam to the west.

Administration

Ripon Building, which houses the Chennai Corporation, was completed 1913. It is named after former viceroy Lord Ripon.Chennai city is governed by the Corporation of Chennai, which consists of a Mayor and 155 Councillors representing the 155 Wards (all directly elected by the city residents), one of whom is elected by the other Councillors as a Deputy Mayor. The Mayor and Deputy Mayor preside over about 10 Standing Committees. The Corporation takes care of the civic functions of the metropropolitan region of Chamil Nadu houses the executive and legislative headquarters of the government of Tliamentary constituencies – Chennai North, Chennai Central and Chennai South. The current MPs are C Kuppusami, Dayanidhi Maran and T R Baalu respectively. Chennai elects 18 MLAChennai Police dome ministry. There are thirty six sub-divisions of the Greater Chennai Police, and 121 police stations. Fifteen of these police stations are now ISO 9001:2000 certified. The city's traffic is managed by the Chennai City Traffic Police (CCTP). Metropolitan suburbs are policed by the Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur police departments.

Economy

Tidel Park, the largest software park in ChennaiChennai has a diversified economic base driven primarily by the a, software development and business process outsourcing have emerged as major areas in the city's economy. The IT Corridor, on Old Mahabalipuram Road, and currently being turned into a six-lane exprrgest information technology parks, is currently under construction in the outskirts of Chennai. Nokia, among other multinational corporations, is setting up a Rs 675-crore facility at an SEZ in the satellite town of Sriperumbudur. The city has two main biotechnology parks, TICEL bio-tech pahe base for over forty percent of India's automotive industry. A large number of the automotive comaranies are headquartered in Chennai. Many Indian banks, multi-national banks and the World Bank have located their back office operations in the city. The city serves as a major bacstrial manufacturing, pertochemicals and auto ancillary plants.Chennai is a textile industry hub with a large number of apparel industries located in the Ambattur-Padi industrial zone in the northern suburbs of the city. The city also has a large leather apparel and accessory industry. SEZ's for apparel manufacture and footwear are under construction in the southern suburbs of the city.

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